This study was aimed at identifying the causes of continuous failures, fires, and explosions of electrical and electronic systems in educational facilities that result from lightning, which occurs frequently during the summer. The study is also aimed at suggesting prevention measures for such damage. The installation status and problems of lightning protection systems (LPSs) were examined by analyzing the damage compensation data of the Korea Institute of Educational Facility Safety, a questionnaire and field survey, and related laws. A total of 49,989 educational facilities responded to the questionnaire. The survey indicated that out of all the educational facilities, 21% had external LPSs, 6.2% had internal LPSs, 4% had both internal and external LPSs, and only 2.5% had installed bonding in addition to internal and external LPSs. The LPSs were not installed properly because the heights of most educational facilities are less than 20 m although the Building Act stipulates that LPSs s... [more]

The paper’s main purpose was to identify the level and factors influencing the consumption of bioenergy of agricultural origin in agriculture in EU countries. All EU countries were deliberately selected for research, as of 31 December 2018. The research period covered the years 2004 to 2018. The sources of materials were the subject literature, Eurostat data, and IEA (International Energy Agency) data. The following methods were used for the analysis and presentation of materials: descriptive, tabular, graphical, Gini concentration coefficient, Lorenz concentration curve, descriptive statistics, Kendall’s tau correlation coefficient and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. In the EU, there was a high level of concentration of renewable energy consumption in several countries. There was also no change in the use of bioenergy of agricultural origin in agriculture, but the concentration level was low. The degree of concentration has not changed for both parameters of renewable energy... [more]

Cyanobacterial blooms and strains absorb carbon dioxide, drawing attention to its use as feed for animals and renewable energy sources. However, cyanobacteria can produce toxins and have a low heating value. Herein, we studied a cyanobacterial strain harvested during a bloom event and analyzed it to use as animal feed and a source of energy supply. The thermal properties and the contents of total nitrogen, protein, carbohydrate, fatty acids, lipid, and the presence of cyanotoxins were investigated in the Microcystis aeruginosa LTPNA 01 strain and in a bloom material. Microcystins (hepatotoxins) were not detected in this strain nor in the bloom material by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that degradation reactions (devolatilization) initiated at around 180 °C, dropping from approximately 90% to 20% of the samples’ mass. Our work showed that despite presenting a low heating value, both biomass and non-toxic M. aeruginosa LTPNA 01 coul... [more]

Local flexibility markets (LFMs) are a market-based concept to integrate distributed energy resources into congestion management. However, the activation of flexibility for storage-based flexibility changes the respective state of charge. Compensation in later points of time is needed to regain the original flexibility potential. Therefore, we propose a LFM bid formulation including both flexibility and compensation. Furthermore, flexibility market participation might lead to inc-dec-gaming, i.e., congestion-increasing behavior to maximize profits. However, this inc-dec-gaming might lead to electricity market schedule deviations if LFM offers are not activated. We propose a risk-averse modeling formulation considering the potential non-activation of LFM bids to provide a framework for the assessment of LFM participation comparing different approaches. Our exemplary case studies demonstrate the proposed LFM bid formulation and show the impact of LFM participation modeling on inc-dec-gam... [more]

Li-ion capacitors (LICs) are designed to achieve high power and energy densities using a carbon-based material as a positive electrode coupled with a negative electrode often adopted from Li-ion batteries. However, such adoption cannot be direct and requires additional materials optimization. Furthermore, for the desired device’s performance, a proper design of the electrodes is necessary to balance the different charge storage mechanisms. The negative electrode with an intercalation or alloying active material must provide the high rate performance and long-term cycling ability necessary for LIC functionality—a primary challenge for the design of these energy-storage devices. In addition, the search for new active materials must also consider the need for environmentally friendly chemistry and the sustainable availability of key elements. With these factors in mind, this review evaluates advanced and emerging materials used as high-rate anodes in LICs from the perspective of their pra... [more]

Sliding mode control strategies are well known for ensuring robustness of the system with respect to disturbance and model uncertainties. For continuous-time plants, they achieve this property by confining the system state to a particular hyperplane in the state space. Contrary to this, discrete-time sliding mode control (DSMC) strategies only drive the system representative point to a certain vicinity of that hyperplane. In established literature on DSMC, the width of this vicinity has always been strictly greater than zero in the presence of uncertainties. Thus, ideal sliding motion was considered impossible for discrete-time systems. In this paper, a new approach to DSMC design is presented with the aim of driving the system representative point exactly onto the sliding hyperplane even in the presence of uncertainties. As a result, the quasi-sliding mode band width is effectively reduced to zero and ideal discrete-time sliding motion is ensured. This is achieved with the proper sele... [more]

A new single-input multiple-output (SIMO) converter is proposed in this work by incorporating flyback and buck converters in a master−slave configuration. The objective of this work is to address the cross regulation problem, achieve tight voltage regulation, improve the circuit form factor and attain a fast transient response for a SIMO flyback converter. The flyback converter maintains the output channels within 10% of their rated voltages and the SIMO buck converter is placed in series with the flyback converter such that it compensates for the output voltage deviation. Moreover, a time multiplexing switching scheme decouples output channel to eliminate the cross-regulation problem and remove the need for an additional winding transformer per each output channel. A type II compensator with a peak current mode controller was designed to achieve faster transient response which is critical for the proposed configuration. A thorough steady-state analysis was carried out on a triple outp... [more]

This paper presents a series of experiments on the effectiveness of existing mechanical ventilation systems during accidental hydrogen releases in confined spaces, such as underground garages. The purpose was to find the mass flow rate limit, hence the TPRD diameter limit, that will not require a change in the ventilation system. The experiments were performed in a 40 ft ISO container in Norway, and hydrogen gas was used in all experiments. The forced ventilation system was installed with a standard 315 mm diameter outlet. The ventilation parameters during the investigation were British Standard with 10 ACH and British Standard with 6 ACH. The hydrogen releases were obtained through 0.5 mm and 1 mm nozzles from different hydrogen reservoir pressures. Both types of mass flow, constant and blowdown, were included in the experimental matrix. The analysis of the hydrogen concentration of the created hydrogen cloud in the container shows the influence of the forced ventilation on hydrogen r... [more]

The aim of the study is to present a methodology for analyzing pollution emissions in a medium-sized city using modern traffic simulations in the aspect of minimizing exhaust emissions. The scope of the research and the methods of analysis used differ from those applied in big cities projects that can be found in the literature, Therefore the progressive elaboration model has been applied methodically to formulate and carry out the feasibility study. To perform microscopic traffic simulations, the software Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO—German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany) was applied. Thanks to the simulations, changes in traffic organization were accurately identified in the context of pollution emissions before they were implemented. The proposed approach allows a smooth flow of vehicles and a reduction of exhaust emissions. The experiments, supported by visual modelling of traffic with respect to pollution emissions, were performed on one of the main arteries of the... [more]

Two-tank metal hydride pairs have gained tremendous interest in thermal energy storage systems for concentrating solar power plants or industrial waste heat recovery. Generally, the system’s performance depends on selecting and matching the metal hydride pairs and the thermal management adopted. In this study, the 2D mathematical modeling used to investigate the heat storage system’s performance under different thermal management techniques, including active and passive heat transfer techniques, is analyzed and discussed in detail. The change in the energy storage density, the specific power output, and the energy storage efficiency is studied under different heat transfer measures applied to the two tanks. The results showed that there is a trade-off between the energy storage density and the energy storage efficiency. The adoption of active heat transfer enhancement (convective heat transfer enhancement) leads to a high energy storage density of 670 MJ m−3 (close to the maximum theor... [more]

The constant increase in electrical energy consumption has led to a growth of photovoltaic installations (PV) along with the corresponding power converters for proper operation. Power electronics converters represent a challenge to maintain the system’s performance and safety; one such problem is series DC Arc Fault (AF). DC AFs lead to fire risk, damaging the main bus and the loads when not detected and interrupted in time. Therefore, research about DC AFs in power electronics converters must be carried out to predict the behavior and help avoid damage to the system. In this work, an innovative hybrid multilevel inverter for PV applications is used to explore the effect of series DC AFs in the converters’ internal signals, with the aims of setting the bases for the development of a detection system for power electronics. Both stages of conversion (DC/DC and DC/AC) are presented. In addition, the placement of the MPPT converter was considered for the tests. The AF experimental tests we... [more]

Deep learning has already been successfully used in the development of decision support systems in various domains. Therefore, there is an incentive to apply it in other important domains such as agriculture. Fertilizers, electricity, chemicals, human labor, and water are the components of total energy consumption in agriculture. Yield estimates are critical for food security, crop management, irrigation scheduling, and estimating labor requirements for harvesting and storage. Therefore, estimating product yield can reduce energy consumption. Two deep learning models, Long Short-Term Memory and Gated Recurrent Units, have been developed for the analysis of time-series data such as agricultural datasets. In this paper, the capabilities of these models and their extensions, called Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory and Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Units, to predict end-of-season yields are investigated. The models use historical data, including climate data, irrigation scheduling, and... [more]

Currently, intensive work is underway in Poland to increase the share of renewable energy sources in the overall energy balance. Therefore, this paper presents the possibilities of using concentrated solar power in zones with a temperate climate. A simplified model based on the energy balance in the solar collectors considering the main operating parameters of the typical solar power plant was developed. It should be noted here that the model does not take into account issues related to heat accumulation and electricity generation in a Solar Thermal Power Station. The simulation of forced convection inside the solar collector absorber was additionally included in the calculations to improve its accuracy. The model was verified using actual heat measurements at the outlet of the parabolic collector installation at a Solar Thermal Power Station located in the south of Spain. The heat generated by a similar solar collector system in a selected region with a temperate climate, the city of... [more]

The interest in renewable energy to replace fossil fuel is increasing as the problem caused by climate change has become more severe. In this study, small hydropower (SHP) was evaluated as a resource with high development value because of its high energy density compared to other renewable energy sources. SHP may be an attractive and sustainable power generation environmental perspective because of its potential to be found in small rivers and streams. The power generation potential could be estimated based on the discharge in the river basin. Since the river discharge depends on the climate conditions, the hydropower generation potential changes sensitively according to climate variability. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the SHP potential in consideration of future climate change. In this study, the future prospect of SHP potential is simulated for the period of 2021 to 2100 considering the climate change in three hydropower plants of Deoksong, Hanseok, and Socheon stations, Ko... [more]

Sewage sludge hydrochars (SSHs), which are produced by hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), offer a high calorific value to be applied as a biofuel. However, HTC is a complex processand the properties of the resulting product depend heavily on the process conditions and feedstock composition. In this work, we have applied artificial neural networks (ANNs) to contribute to the production of tailored SSHs for a specific application and with optimum properties. We collected data from the published literature covering the years 2014−2021, which was then fed into different ANN models where the input data (HTC temperature, process time, and the elemental content of hydrochars) were used to predict output parameters (higher heating value, (HHV) and solid yield (%)). The proposed ANN models were successful in accurately predicting both HHV and contents of C and H. While the model NN1 (based on C, H, O content) exhibited HHV predicting performance with R2 = 0.974, another model, NN2, was also able... [more]

Compensation is key to an inductive power transfer (IPT) system in terms of voltage transfer function and efficiency optimization. Basic compensation is simple, but not suitable, for the achievement of variable load-independent voltage-gains without changing the design of the loosely-coupled transformer (LCT). On the other hand, higher-order compensation circuits enable greater design freedom to achieve variable load-independent voltage-gains while keeping the LCT unchanged, but it requires a variety of compensation components, especially the inductive components, which incur significant copper and core losses. This paper proposes a comprehensive design of the series/series-parallel (S/SP) IPT system. The design methodology for variable load-independent voltage-gains is studied to keep the LCT unchanged and achieve zero phase angle input over the whole load range. Design consideration includes the effect of misalignment issue on the voltage-gain and, thus, a design criteria can be deri... [more]

Penetration of equipment such as photovoltaic power generations (PV), heat pump water heaters (HP), and electric vehicles (EV) introduces voltage unbalance issues in distribution systems. Controlling PV and energy storage system (ESS) outputs or coordinated EV charging are investigated for voltage unbalance compensation. However, some issues exist, such as dependency on installed capacity and fairness among consumers. Therefore, the ideal way to mitigate unbalanced voltages is to use grid-side equipment mainly. This paper proposes a voltage unbalance compensation based on optimal tap operation scheduling of three-phase individual controlled step voltage regulators (3ϕSVR) and load ratio control transformer (LRT). In the formulation of the optimization problem, multiple voltage unbalance metrics are comprehensively included. In addition, voltage deviations, network losses, and coordinated tap operations, which are typical issues in distribution systems, are considered. In order to inves... [more]

This paper discusses the use of a stochastic metaheuristic population-based optimization algorithm known as the sine cosine algorithm (SCA) to design the parameters of a power system stabilizer (PSS) for damping electromechanical oscillations in a single machine connected to a large power system. The design of the PSS parameters was formulated as an optimization problem to minimize the objective function value. The SCA was used to obtain the best values of the PSS parameters under the objective function. Simulation was carried out by a linearized power system model. The lead lag controller was used as the PSS structure and the results from that were compared with those obtained by moth flame optimization and evolutionary programming. The results showed that the SCA is more effective than are the other techniques in exploration and exploitation to tune the PSS parameters and enhance the power system stability by damping oscillations in a range of loading conditions.

In this paper, we experimentally investigated two high temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) stacks for their response to the presence of reformate impurities in an anode gas stream. The investigation was aimed at characterizing the effects of reformate impurities at the stack level, including in humidified conditions and identifying fault features for diagnosis purposes. Two HT-PEMFC stacks of 37 cells each with active areas of 165 cm2 were used with one stack containing a pre-doped membrane with a woven gas diffusion layer (GDL) and the other containing a post-doped membrane with non-woven GDL. Polarization curves and galvanostatic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used for characterization. We found that both N2 dilution and impurities in the anode feed affected mainly the charge transfer losses, especially on the anode side. We also found that humidification alleviated the poisoning effects of the impurities in the stack with pre-doped membra... [more]

The paper presents the results of laboratory studies on the strength−strain properties of shales representing four siltstone-claystone lithostratigraphic units occurring in the Baltic Basin. Laboratory studies in a triaxial stress state were conducted as single failure tests on cylindrical samples oriented parallel and perpendicular to lamination within the rocks. Mutually perpendicular samples were cut out from the same drill core sections in order to determine mechanical anisotropy. Samples oriented parallel to lamination were characterised by values of the static Young’s modulus twice as high as from samples oriented perpendicular to lamination. Similar variability was observed in the case of maximum differential stress values and Poisson’s ratio. Samples parallel to lamination registered notably lower axial strains, which influenced increased values of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. The rocks studied are characterised by VTI type (vertical transverse isotropy) internal anisot... [more]

The aim of the study was to evaluate the possibility of using the process of dark fermentation to convert kitchen waste into valuable volatile fatty acids in a semi-continuous process at different values of the organic loading rate (2.5 and 5.0 gVS/(L × d)) and hydraulic retention time (5 and 10 d) using anaerobic mixed microbial consortia. The experiments were performed in a bioreactor of working volume 8L with pH control. The maximum volatile fatty acids yield in a steady state (22.3 g/L) was achieved at the organic loading rate of 5.0 gVS/(L × d) and HRT of 10 days. The main products of dark fermentation were acetic and butyric acids, constituting, respectively, 35.2−47.7% and 24.1−30.0% of all identified volatile fatty acids. Additionally, at the beginning of the fermentation and in a steady-state condition, the microbial population analysis (16S rDNA) of the fermentation mixture with the most effective volatile fatty acids generation has been performed to monitor the DF microflora... [more]

Gas turbines are expected to play a key role in the energy production scenario in the future, and the introduction of carbon-free fuels is fundamental for the development of a sustainable energy mix. The development of a reliable numerical model is thus fundamental in order to support the design changes required for the burners. This paper presents the results of a numerical investigation on a turbulent, diffusive, combustion test case, with the purpose of identifying the best compromise between accuracy and computational cost, in the perspective of the model application in real, more complex, geometries. Referring to a test case has two main advantages. First, a rather simple geometry can be considered, still retaining a few peculiar flow features, such as recirculation vortices and shear layers, which are typical of real applications. Second, the experimental setup is much more detailed than in the case of real turbines, allowing a thorough model validation to be performed. In this p... [more]

The current work presents a computationally cost-effective numerical model that successfully simulates a heat pump water heater (HPWH) under typical working conditions of dwellings. The model’s main components are a stratified tank and the heat-pump unit. Both systems are coupled, since a good prediction of water temperature is needed to accurately predict the heat-pump performance. Ten thermocouples measured the tank wall temperature. Measurements and simulations were performed under challenging conditions of a heavy stratification. The 190 L tank stratification was successfully modeled employing a 1D model, experimentally adjusted by three tapping cycles, with 6 × 22, 6 × 33, and 3 × 33 L consumptions, covering flowrates of 4 and 6 L/min. Water temperature is obtained with an uncertainty of 2.6 °C while the heat-pump was ON. A black box model has been used to obtain the heat-pump performance out of the external and condenser temperatures. For the analyzed days, the COP estimation pre... [more]

Lignin-feeding insect gut is a natural ligninolytic microbial bank for the sustainable conversion of crop straw to biogas. However, limited studies have been done on highly efficient microbes. Here, an efficient ligninolytic strain Enterobacter hormaechei KA3 was isolated from the gut microbiomes of lignin-feeding Hypomeces squamosus Fabricius, and its effects on lignin degradation and anaerobic digestion were investigated. No research has been reported. Results showed that strain KA3 had better lignin-degrading ability for corn straw with a higher lignin-degrading rate (32.05%) and lignin peroxidase activity (585.2 U/L). Furthermore, the highest cumulative biogas yield (59.19 L/kg-VS) and methane yield (14.76 L/kg-VS) were obtained for KA3 inoculation, which increased by 20% and 31%, respectively, compared to CK. Higher removal rates of COD, TS, and vs. of 41.6%, 43.11%, and 66.59% were also found. Moreover, microbial community diversity increased as digestion time prolonged in TG, an... [more]

At present, the prevalence of electric vehicles is increasing continuously. In particular, there are promising applications for commercial vehicles transferring from conventional to full electric, due to lower operating costs and stricter emission regulations. Thus, cost analysis from the fleet perspective becomes important. The study of cost competitiveness of different drivetrain designs is necessary to evaluate the fleet cost variance for different degrees of electrical machine commonality. This paper presents a methodology to find a preliminary powertrain design that minimizes the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) for an entire fleet of electric commercial vehicles while fulfilling the performance requirements of each vehicle type. This methodology is based on scalable electric machine models, and particle swarm is used as the main optimization algorithm. The results show that the total cost penalty incurred when sharing the same electrical machine is small, therefore, there is a cost... [more]